5: Flags, Banners and insignia of rank.

Illustration 51: An engraving showing Tipu's Sun and Bubri standard

Information on the flags of the Mysore army was very hard to come by and involved many hours of trawling through images to find them or descriptions of them. Forrest in “Tiger of Mysore” gives us the simple and annoyingly brief description of one of every Cushoons' flags as being:- “a red standard, triangular, with a green border and pendants to distinguish the corps. ”Besides these flags, there was The Presence's “durbar banner” Which was based on his name in Arabic script in the form of a tiger's mask.

Illustration 52: This flag and pennants are notional but based on descriptions and known examples.

Illustration 53: Tipu Sultan's Durbar Banner

Illustration 54: Common types of howdah banners

Illustration 55: Mysorean flags. The 3 on the left may be from Chelsea Hospital.

Those at the top right are The Mysore flags and Tipu's standard and the one at the

bottom possibly that of one of the “Tiger Grenadier” Cushoons

.Cavalry carried smaller square or triangular flags, often with a sun motif in the

centre. As well as flags, parasols and brocade sunshades were awarded as

symbols of rank.

Illustration 57: Possible 2nd standard for the"Tigers Grenadiers" based on a watercolourby Gold

Unfortunately it is not possible to attribute flags to particular units except perhaps for those in Gold's illustration of Troops outside the Daria Daulat Palace which perhaps show one of the units known by the British as “Tiger Grenadiers”

Illustration 58: Mysore standards from apainting of Tipu's sons being taken as hostages

Illustration 59: Anotherfrom the same painting

Illustration 60: Flags in the Gold Watercolour

Finally, whilst I knew that there are Indian flags displayed at The Royal Hospital in Chelsea, and, also that 2 manuscripts exist which contain drawings and descriptions of these, I was, until recently unable to discover more, when a gentleman from Kensington library archives kindly sent me photographs of the MS pages containing these flags. Most turned out to be ones I had found elswhere but which had been drawn incorrectly, the originals being right angle triangles rather than pennant types. The rest were flags I have seen nowhere else.

Illustration 61: Mysore flags from Chelsea Hospital

Apart from flags, which identified units and leaders, there were various other symbols that indicated rank or favour. These comprised of ornamental fans or sunshades –items that were in common use throughout the Eastern World- which were usually made of brocades and feathers, the other symbols were palanquins and howdahs –not the structures themselves, but their colour. In common with the rest of India, yellow palanquins and howdahs were the preserve of high officers given permission to use them by the head of state. Only Europeans didn’t acknowledge this and used whatever colour they wanted.

Illustration 62: Sunshades and fans used as signs of rank and favour

Illustration 63: A dignitary in a pallankeen surrounded by guards and retainers

Illustration 64: Mysore sepoys

Part 6: Arms and Equipment.

Illustration 65: An impressive stand of Indian arms.

Tipu Sultan believed strongly that as much as possible of his arms and equipment should be manufactured in Mysore and set about turning his kingdom into the first industrialised state in India. To this end, he sought French artisans and instructors to supervise the casting of high quality artillery pieces and construction of muskets and matchlocks.

In a letter to the French King, Tipu requested 10 masters for casting cannon; 10 gunsmiths; 10 foremen for casting incendiary bombs; 10 workers of Sevres porcelain; 10 glass workers; 10 wool-carders; 10 watch-makers; 10 textilemakers; 10 printers of Oriental languages; 10 weavers; one skilful doctor and one surgeon; one Engineer; one caster of bullets; clove plants; camphor trees; fruit trees of Europe; seeds of flowers of various kinds; seeds of linseed and 10 workers necessary for their cultivation. In short, everything needed to learn European manufacturing and farming methods. 10 gunsmiths; 10 casters of bullets; 10 porcelain workers; 10 glass makers; 10 weavers of cloth; 10 tapestry makers; 10 watch makers; 10 farmers and workers of hemp; 2 printers of Oriental languages; 1 physician; 1 surgeon; 2 engineers and 2 gardeners agreed to enter Tipu’s service

Iron and Steel

The Iron and Steel industry in Mysore had already reached a high level of scientific proficiency and output by the end of the 18th Century. These forges in Tipu’s time were optimized for labour efficiency and the wages earned by the labour force were on par or better than contemporary workmen in neighbouring states controlled by the British.

Mysore’s transformation into a technologically advanced state was brought about because of the continual skirmishes and conflicts of interests with the British from around the middle of the 18th century. Tipu knew that only by using their own -or superior- weapons and tactics against them could he hope to overcome the British and other European nations. Fortunately for Tipu, Mysore’s wealth of natural resources allowed him to seek battlefield technological parity with his European enemies.

According to Francis Hamilton Buchanan, who was sent to Mysore to collect data on the climate and natural resources as well as the condition of peoples and their agriculture and manufactures, by the Governor General of India Lord Wellesley noted in “A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar”:-

“On my way I examined some iron forges, of which there are many in this hilly tract of country; and from a man, who employs twelve labourers, I procured the following account of the operations performed on the ore. The iron is made partly from the black sand which is found in the rainy season in the channels of all the torrents in the country; and partly from an ore called ‘Canny Kallu’ found in the rocks themselves at Ghettipura, two cosses from Magadi. During the four months of heavy rains, four men are able to collect as much sand as a furnace can smelt in the remainder of the year. In order to separate the earth and sand, which are always mixed with it in the channel of the torrent, it requires to be washed.

These men get ten Fanams, or 6s.8 ½d a month, and the nature of their service is similar to that of the farmers servants, being bound by occasional advances of money to continue in the employment of the master. During the remaining eight months of the year they work at the forge”.

Only iron from the black sand could be made into steel. And it was this iron on which Mysore’s gun-making industry was based. Buchanan discovered Iron being smelted in various talukas near Tumkur, a distance of about 70 kilometers from Bangalore – Madhugiri, Chinnarayanadurga, Hagalawadi and Devarayadurga. The first 2 talukas contributed iron ore in the form of black sand from channels described above that would be used to make steel for sword blades, cannon, muskets, stone cutters@ chisels, etc and the rest smelted iron ore mined out of rocks which was used for all other purposes, primarily agricultural and household.

Each smelting, of which according to Buchanan, there were usually 3 per day saw an input of about 20 kg of dry black sand which after smelting gave a mass of iron weighing about 9 kg. The iron was then taken to the forging house where the iron was again heated and hammered into 11 wedges of iron, each shaped like a plough-share and hence easily trade-able as one. At the end of the process about 47% of iron was produced from the ore, which though still quite impure was malleable, a prime requirement for all tools from plough-shares to sword blades. Every day 33 wedges of iron were forged. Iron smelted from the rock ores came out at around 20% by weight and was primarily used to fulfil Mysore’s household and agricultural needs. It would also be used in making war equipment like shells (actually rocket casings) round shot, horse accoutrements, swords and lance blades for the militia, etc. which because of the iron they were made from could not have been the same quality as those used by the regulars or silladars.

Certain foundries were used exclusively by the armed forces like modern ordinance factories in that they worked entirely on the Government’s behalf and for its’ exclusive benefit. Tipu also ordered the foundries to mark the shot and implements with the name of their district as a quality check so that the item could be verified at any time against both inventory as well as Quality.

Although some regular troops were armed with French muskets, many were equipped with ones made in some of the large number of factories Tipu set up and many of his heavy guns were cast in native foundries and pronounced to be of high quality by both the French and those who faced them. British engineers searching Mysore after its’ fall found machines capable of drilling out multiple musket barrels simultaneously and vertical drills capable of boring out cannon to a high degree of accuracy. Tipu and his father both preferred weaponry made in Mysore, recognising that even if inferior, it gave a sustainable and secure source.

As mentioned earlier, Mysore's cannon whether produced in France and exchanged for local goods or cast in Mysore were of excellent quality and usually very well served. Though the state still possessed many of the old, huge, Mughal style guns so beloved by Indian princes and generals, these were relegated to service within the many forts or, at best, brought up after the main arms as siege cannon. Those that were attached to the field armies were the lighter, more modern pieces ranging from 3pdr. Gallopers attached to the regular cavalry up to 24pdr field guns that far exceeded both the weight of shot and range achieved by anything the HEIC possessed.

Towards the end of his reign, Tipu had a tremendous range of artillery pieces accumulated over the years from the Mughals, the Wodeyars and his father. The sheer number of different calibres detracted greatly from the artillery’s efficiency and once he had acquired French help began to concentrate on the lighter calibres for field use. He also introduced lighter mortars based on the Coehorn Mortars of the 17th Century as an easily transportable means of dealing with troops behind defences.

Gun carriages were crafted from the timber of Teak and Acacia trees. During the rainy season, he would have Teak and Acacia seeds planted along the river banks and on the lower slopes of the Ghats to ensure a ready supply of these timbers which were only to be cut on the orders of Tipu Sultan himself. In exactly the same way, men such as Admiral Collingwood would sow acorns when out walking to ensure England would always have sufficient oak for her Navy.

The following chart gives the calibres and construction materials of the Mysorean artillery.

Rather than being drawn by horses, the Mysore artillery was drawn by mules for the “horse artillery and gallopers and bullocks for the field artillery. The bullock teams were calculated at one for each pound weight (or thereabouts) of shot, so a six pound gun would have a six bullock team and a twenty-four pounder would be pulled by no less than twenty-four. Elephants were attached to the artillery elements of each brigade and with the artillery of the park to assist when the guns became bogged down or required other assistance. 1935 bullocks were allocated to the artillery park.

Illustration 66: A Mysorean field gun

Illustration 67: A mortar cast in Mysore

Illustration 68: Another view of the same mortar -not so much a "Barking Dog" as a "Roaring Tiger"


	Illustration 69: The breech of	one of Tipu's cannon

Illustration 70: Muzzle of the same gun

Illustration 71: The superb tiger's mask muzzle on a field gun shows the high quality of Mysorean craftsmanship

Whilst on the subject of guns, there is a clear difference made in the Futtah al Mujahaddin concerning “horse artillery” which accompanied the irregular cavalry and the “gallopers” that were attached to the regulars. The horse artillery are conventional, limbered guns pulled by teams of mules rather than horses, whilst the gallopers were light guns pulled by a single mule (although others could be added in tandem) which was harnessed between the twin trails of the gun in the manner of a one horse cart. These light guns could be also be broken down and carried on mule back like mountain guns. The advantage of these gallopers lay in their speed of movement, their manoeuvrability and ability to pass through terrain that would have stopped conventional artillery. However, though they had as high rate of fire due to their small calibre, they were prone to blowing up if over-used

Illustration 72: galloper from the Royal Artillery Museum

Illustration 73: A galloper as used in the Vellore Mutiny of 1806, from the Vellore Museum

These illustrations show how the animal pulling the gun, whether horse, mule, bullock, camel or elephant would be harnessed to it. Mysorean horse artillery and gallopers were pulled by mules rather than horses not because of lack of horses but rather because mules tended to be steadier. The only other system of pulling a galloper was Lord Townsend's system In which the shafts were separate from the trails but securely fastened to them whilst in travel mode.

Illustration 74: Lord Townsend's galloper system

Illustration 75: A sangin or socket bayonet in the shape of a bubri

Illustration 76: One of Tipu's hunting rifles. Again, note the workmanship

Illustration 77: A flintlock pistol from Mysore

Illustration 78: Flintlock pistols

Besides the musket, the other main firearm used by the Mysorean troops was the matchlock. These were considered, even by the British, to be more accurate than the flintlock muskets used at the time. They were however far slower to load. This was because, according to contemporary sources, they were “chambered” though I've been unable to find out for certain what this term meant -whether they were breech loading or had a slight “bulb” at the breech end.

Illustration 79: Notice the bubri on the swan-neck

One type of matchlock used was a “superimposed charge” matchlock, in which a number of charges and balls were put down the barrel in succession with each ball and wad acting as a seal to the charge behind it. Each charge corresponded to a separate match-hole so that the gun was a “repeater” to the number of charges loaded. How safe this was I have no idea! This matchlock is one manufactured in the Mysore Public Armouries for making and finishing small arms under Tipu’s patronage. It has very cleverly been made dual-purpose in that it can easily be adapted for use as a flintlock, which, unlike most other Indian matchlocks, it resembles from a distance. It is a gun that can be easily disassembled and reconfigured either as a matchlock or a flintlock.

The “Bukmar” was a form of flintlock shotgun. The ‘Stinging Wasp’ in Farsi is an apt name for this Mysorean firearm whose discharge of pellets would inflict similar agony on one’s flesh as when one was stung by a vicious wasp. The blunderbuss was not a weapon unique to Tipu’s army as it had been used by armies in Europe since the 17th C. What is important here is how Tipu identified the usefulness of this type of firearm for his Camel corps and manufactured them in Mysore. As with other weapons crafted in Mysore, they were heavily ornamented with tiger’s head and bubri motifs along with the proof marks demanded by the Sultan.

Illustration 80: Breech with Chamber for Superimposed charge

Illustration 81: Superimposed matchlock mechanism

Illustration 82: Matchlock/musket

Illustration 83: The more usual style of Indian matchlock

Illustration 84: A “Bukmar” Blunderbuss shotgun created for Tipu’s camel corps

Rockets.

The other form of “artillery” used was the rocket or “ban”, later developed on by Congreve for use with the British army and Navy. Though this type of projectile had long been in use in India, Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan were the first to build and deploy them in large numbers. Eye witnesses say they had a range of up to a thousand yards and that the rocketeers or “rocket boys” as I have seen them called were very skillful in angling the rocket to achieve the range they trained as they were to calculate the launch angle from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target.

Highly inaccurate when fired singly, used en-masse they were very difficult to avoid due to their unpredictability and could cause tremendous damage, both physical and in terms of morale when used against close-order targets. Horses and elephants in particular were terrified by these weapons. Comments were also made about the danger of rockets fired during night assaults, comparing them to the “blue lights” use by the Royal Navy, but to an extent and in numbers, that lit up every assailant as clearly as daylight.

The rocket consisted of an iron tube about seven inches to a foot long packed with gunpowder, attached to a bamboo pole for stability, some had pierced cylinders, to allow them to act like incendiaries while others had either a “straight bladed sword” or a separate explosive charge at the front end and at the rear an opening and a fuse. The extra weight of the sword blades made the missiles highly unstable as the propellant charge was used up and they would begin to spin wildly, acting like the spikes on the wheels of a scythed chariot. The great advance in made in Mysorean rockets lay in their casing. Up until Haider Ali’s rule, the casings had been made of paper, whilst those of Haider and Tipu’s day were of soft, beaten iron which allowed the black powder propellant to be packed in more tightly giving greater range and more explosive power.

The areas of town where rockets and fireworks were manufactured - Seringapatam, Bangalore, Bednur and Chittaldrug, were known as Taramandalpet -roughly, “the market of the constellation of falling stars”, a name that refers to the pattern of mid-air explosions of these rockets that then rained shrapnel on an unsuspecting enemy-. The entire road alongside the Jumma Masjid near City Market in Seringapatam and Taramandalpet in Bangalore were the hubs of Tipu's rocket project where he had set up a laboratory. After the storming of the city, 700 entire rockets and 9,000 empty rockets were found there.

Tipu Sultan’s military manual the “Futtah al Mujahidin” demanded that 200 rocket men were assigned to each Mysorean "cushoon" (brigade). Mysore had 16 to 24 cushoons of infantry. In addition, wheeled rocket launchers capable of launching five to ten rockets almost simultaneously were used in war.

Illustration85: Mysorean Rockets

The Tulwar/Talwar

The typical sword used by the Mysoreans as well as their mercenary troops was the tulwar, a curve bladed weapon with either an open or knuckle-bow hilt with a disc pommel. The blade, normally around 29 inches long widened slightly towards the tip, without a step to the back of the blade, was sharpened along the front edge and along the broadened back edge enabling the sword to pierce or cut. The broadening of the blade towards the tip gave the weapon added weight that gave it more power in the cut. The blade profile of the 1796 pattern British Light Cavalry sabre is similar to some examples of the tulwar, and it has been suggested that the tulwar may have contributed to the design of the British sabre. Experts tend to deny this, but one can see the similarities simply by comparing the two types of weapon.

Many tulwars were highly decorative with inlays of silver or gold set with semi-precious stones.